Paper 203: Postcolonial Studies
Assignment of Paper: 203 The Green Transition's Colonial Mine: Fanon, Cobalt Extraction, and Unequal Value in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's EV-Battery Supply Chain (2020–2026)
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Academic Details
Name: Sandhya Bhut
Roll No.: 26
Enrollment No.: 5108250004
Sem.: 3
Batch: 2025 - 2027
E-mail: sandhyabhut06@gmail.com
Assignment Details
Paper Name: Postcolonial Studies
Paper No.: 203
Paper Code: 22408
Unit: 1 - Franz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth
Topic: The Green Transition's Colonial Mine: Fanon, Cobalt Extraction, and Unequal Value in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's EV-Battery Supply Chain (2020–2026)
Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University
Submitted Date: October 19, 2026
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Abstract
The global transition towards electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy is frequently presented as an essential step towards a sustainable future. However, the minerals required for this transition raise questions about environmental justice, economic sovereignty, and the unequal distribution of benefits and burdens. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), a major producer of cobalt used in rechargeable batteries, occupies a strategically important position in the global energy transition. Nevertheless, the country's mineral wealth does not automatically guarantee widespread economic development or improved living conditions for mining communities. This assignment examines the DRC's cobalt supply chain through Frantz Fanon's critique of the postcolonial national bourgeoisie in The Wretched of the Earth, particularly “The Pitfalls of National Consciousness.” It investigates whether contemporary mineral extraction reproduces unequal economic relationships by examining artisanal mining, corporate responsibility, environmental risks, foreign investment, and the challenges of domestic value addition. Using qualitative textual analysis and secondary research, the study argues that the green transition can reproduce extractive inequalities when resource-producing countries bear significant social and environmental costs while higher-value activities remain concentrated elsewhere. However, these relationships are neither identical to formal colonialism nor entirely unchangeable. The assignment concludes that Fanon's framework helps explain why control over natural resources must be accompanied by accountable governance, industrial development, and meaningful benefits for local communities.
Keywords:
Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, Democratic Republic of the Congo, cobalt, green transition, extractivism, postcolonialism, economic sovereignty, artisanal mining, electric vehicles.
Research Questions
To what extent does the Democratic Republic of the Congo's position in the global cobalt supply chain reproduce unequal economic relationships, and how can Fanon's critique of the postcolonial national bourgeoisie help explain the distribution of economic benefits, environmental burdens, and political power?
How do artisanal mining, corporate sourcing practices, and international investment affect the livelihoods and environmental conditions of Congolese mining communities?
What opportunities and structural barriers shape the DRC's attempts to retain greater economic value through domestic processing and industrial development?
Hypothesis
The global transition towards low-carbon technologies may reproduce extractive inequalities when resource-rich countries supply raw materials while higher-value processing and manufacturing remain concentrated elsewhere. A Fanonian analysis can help investigate how foreign investment, domestic political interests, and global supply chains affect the DRC's economic sovereignty and the distribution of the benefits of mineral extraction.
1. Introduction
The global transition towards low-carbon technologies has created increasing demand for minerals used in electric vehicles, battery storage, and renewable-energy infrastructure. Cobalt is an important component of several rechargeable battery chemistries, particularly nickel-manganese-cobalt batteries. The Democratic Republic of the Congo possesses substantial cobalt resources and has become a central supplier to the global battery industry. However, the country's strategic importance does not necessarily translate into equally distributed economic benefits for its population.
This situation raises an important question: can a transition intended to reduce environmental damage elsewhere reproduce social and economic inequalities in the places where its raw materials are extracted? Although electric vehicles can reduce transport-related emissions, their production depends on mining, processing, industrial investment, and international trade. The environmental and social consequences of these activities must therefore be considered alongside their climate benefits.
Andrew L. Gulley demonstrates the historical importance of the DRC to global cobalt production. His research on a century of cobalt production also identifies electricity constraints as an obstacle to expanding domestic refining capacity (Gulley, “One Hundred Years”). This illustrates the difference between possessing valuable natural resources and controlling the industrial activities that transform them into higher-value products.
Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth provides a theoretical framework for examining this problem. In “The Pitfalls of National Consciousness,” Fanon criticises postcolonial elites who inherit political power without fundamentally transforming the economic structures that disadvantage the majority. His argument is relevant because political independence does not automatically produce economic independence.
This assignment applies Fanon's ideas to the DRC's cobalt supply chain between 2020 and 2026. It examines the relationship between mineral extraction, international investment, domestic political choices, environmental burdens, and local industrial development. It argues that the green transition can reproduce extractive inequalities when mineral-producing countries remain concentrated in lower-value activities. However, it does not assume that contemporary mining is identical to formal colonialism. Instead, it investigates how older patterns of unequal value distribution may persist under different political and economic arrangements.
2. Research Methodology and Scope
This assignment uses a qualitative, literature-based research methodology. Its principal theoretical text is Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth, particularly “The Pitfalls of National Consciousness.” Fanon's discussion of postcolonial political and economic structures is used to interpret contemporary debates about resource governance and economic sovereignty.
The secondary sources include peer-reviewed research on cobalt production, artisanal mining, responsible sourcing, and industrial development. Research by Gulley provides historical and production-related context, while studies by Ben Radley, Raphael Deberdt, and Melanie Müller help explain the political economy of mineral extraction and the possibilities for greater local value creation. Research by Célestin Banza Lubaba Nkulu and colleagues provides evidence concerning environmental exposure in a specific mining context.
The analysis also draws on the International Energy Agency's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 to examine recent developments in mineral supply and export policy.
The study focuses on the period 2020–2026, while using earlier research when necessary to establish historical context. It does not involve original interviews or fieldwork. Consequently, it interprets documented findings rather than claiming to represent every mining community or independently verify the conduct of every company. This distinction is important because the experiences of industrial miners, artisanal miners, local residents, government institutions, and international investors are not identical.
3. Fanon and the Problem of Postcolonial Economic Sovereignty
In The Wretched of the Earth, Fanon examines the consequences of colonialism and the difficulties faced by societies seeking to establish meaningful independence. His discussion of the national bourgeoisie is particularly relevant to resource-dependent economies.
Fanon argues that the national bourgeoisie may inherit political authority without developing the productive capacity necessary to transform the economy. Rather than restructuring inherited economic relationships, it may become an intermediary between international capital and the national population. Political independence can consequently coexist with economic dependence.
This argument provides a useful starting point for examining countries whose international economic importance comes primarily from exporting natural resources. If a country extracts valuable minerals but possesses limited domestic capacity to process them, manufacture finished products, and develop related industries, its participation in the global economy may remain restricted to particular stages of production.
However, Fanon's argument should not be reduced to the claim that every domestic elite is corrupt or that every foreign investment is exploitative. His framework instead encourages an examination of how political power, economic interests, and productive capacity interact. The relevant question is whether national institutions transform resource wealth into broad-based development or allow the benefits to remain concentrated.
Applied to the DRC, this approach raises questions about mining revenue, public accountability, infrastructure, local employment, and industrial policy. It also directs attention towards the relationship between international companies and domestic political institutions. Economic inequality cannot be explained exclusively through foreign influence if national policies and political arrangements also shape the distribution of benefits.
Fanon therefore helps connect external economic dependence with internal political responsibility. His theory becomes useful not because the DRC is simply repeating its colonial past, but because it offers a way to investigate whether formal sovereignty has been accompanied by greater control over the economic processes that determine people's material conditions.
4. The DRC's Position in the Global Cobalt Supply Chain
Cobalt is used in various industrial applications, including rechargeable batteries. Its importance to the energy transition has made the DRC a strategically significant country within global mineral supply chains.
Gulley's study of cobalt production over a century demonstrates the DRC's central position in the international market. The country accounted for approximately 69 percent of global cobalt production in 2020, according to his analysis (“One Hundred Years”). This figure describes the situation in 2020 and should not be treated as an exact production share for every subsequent year.
The country's importance, however, must be distinguished from its position across the entire value chain. Mining is only one stage in the production of battery materials. Extracted cobalt may undergo processing and refining before being incorporated into battery chemicals, components, and finished batteries. Battery manufacturing and electric-vehicle production require additional infrastructure, technological knowledge, investment, and industrial coordination.
The International Energy Agency has documented the geographical concentration of cobalt mining and refining. Its earlier analysis identified the DRC as the dominant mining country and China as the leading cobalt-processing country (IEA, The Role of Critical Minerals). This distinction matters because the country supplying the mineral and the country undertaking important downstream activities may occupy very different economic positions.
The DRC can therefore possess considerable importance as a supplier without controlling an equivalent proportion of the industrial activities that generate value further along the supply chain.
Nevertheless, this relationship should not be oversimplified. Cobalt is often produced as a by-product of copper or nickel mining, and industrial arrangements differ between companies and projects. Some processing takes place in the DRC, and not every stage of the supply chain occurs in a single country. A rigorous analysis must therefore identify particular activities and capabilities rather than treating all cobalt as unprocessed material exported directly from the mine.
The central issue is whether the DRC can use its position as a major supplier to develop more diversified productive capacities. Mineral abundance creates bargaining opportunities, but infrastructure, technical expertise, financing, and political decisions influence whether those opportunities become durable economic benefits.
5. The Green Transition and Unequal Economic Value
The green transition presents a significant contradiction. Technologies designed to reduce dependence on fossil fuels require minerals whose extraction can generate environmental damage and social conflict. This does not mean that electric vehicles and renewable energy have no environmental benefits. Rather, their sustainability must be assessed across the supply chains that make them possible.
Ben Radley's “Green Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Quest for National Development in the Congo” examines the relationship between low-carbon development and the DRC's mineral economy. His work raises concerns that international climate ambitions may reinforce a model in which the country supplies relatively low-cost minerals without achieving sufficiently broad improvements in material conditions.
The concept of unequal value distribution helps explain this problem. Mining generates economic value, but that value is distributed among different actors through wages, taxes, royalties, company profits, processing margins, and manufacturing revenues. The presence of a valuable mineral deposit does not determine how these benefits are divided.
If a country exports minerals while lacking sufficient capacity in refining, advanced manufacturing, and related industries, it may miss opportunities to generate additional employment, technical knowledge, and industrial income. Meanwhile, communities near mining operations may experience environmental disruption and pressure on land and local infrastructure.
However, it would be inaccurate to assume that the DRC receives no benefits from cobalt extraction. Mining can generate employment, export revenue, tax income, infrastructure investment, and business opportunities. The question is whether these benefits are sufficient, widely distributed, and sustainable relative to the costs.
Fanon's framework helps reveal why the distribution of value matters as much as the volume of production. Economic sovereignty involves more than owning mineral resources or regulating exports. It also requires the capacity to influence how those resources are transformed into productive investment, public services, and improvements in people's lives.
6. Artisanal Mining, Livelihoods, and Environmental Justice
Artisanal and small-scale mining is an important part of the DRC's cobalt economy. Unlike large industrial operations, artisanal mining frequently involves individuals or small groups extracting minerals using relatively limited equipment. It can provide livelihoods where formal employment opportunities are restricted, but workers may face unsafe conditions, unstable incomes, and inadequate protection.
Gulley's research on artisanal cobalt mining between 2000 and 2020 examines the sector's changing role and its connections with international supply chains. His findings demonstrate that artisanal production cannot be understood separately from the wider industrial and commercial system (“China, the Democratic Republic of the Congo”). Artisanal minerals can enter larger processing networks, meaning that the distinction between small-scale extraction and industrial battery production is not necessarily a distinction between disconnected economies.
The social consequences of mining require particular attention. Célestin Banza Lubaba Nkulu and colleagues investigated environmental exposure in Kolwezi. Their research found higher cobalt concentrations in biological samples from residents of an artisanal-mining neighbourhood than from a nearby comparison area. The researchers also reported evidence of exposure-related oxidative DNA damage in children.
These findings provide important evidence of possible health risks in the studied setting. They should not, however, be generalised automatically to every mining community in the DRC or interpreted as proof that every observed health outcome results exclusively from cobalt exposure.
The research nevertheless demonstrates why mineral supply chains cannot be evaluated only through production figures and market prices. Environmental exposure and occupational safety are part of the economic system because communities bear costs that may not be fully reflected in the price of the mineral.
A further difficulty concerns responsible sourcing. Companies may attempt to reduce risk by excluding artisanal minerals from their supply chains. Although disengagement may protect buyers from some sourcing risks, it can also reduce market access for miners who depend on this activity for their livelihoods.
The International Energy Agency has recognised this tension in its discussion of artisanal cobalt production. It notes that disengagement can worsen the circumstances of communities when mining provides essential income, while formalisation and due diligence may offer alternative approaches (IEA, The Role of Critical Minerals).
The appropriate response is therefore not simply to defend every existing mining practice or exclude artisanal miners from the market. It is to investigate how safer working conditions, fairer market access, environmental monitoring, and effective regulation can be developed together.
From a Fanonian perspective, this issue raises a question of whose interests determine the organisation of the supply chain. If international buyers receive materials while local workers remain exposed to serious risks without adequate protection, the economic relationship requires critical examination. Meaningful reform must improve the conditions of workers and communities rather than merely improve the public image of the companies purchasing the minerals.
7. Corporate Responsibility and the Limits of Ethical Sourcing
Responsible sourcing has become an important issue as consumers, governments, and companies pay greater attention to the social and environmental consequences of mineral production. Measures may include supply-chain tracing, due diligence, supplier audits, workplace standards, and commitments to prevent human-rights abuses.
Xintong Cao, Maria Sharmina, and Rosa M. Cuéllar-Franca examine the incentives, risks, and stakeholders involved in sourcing cobalt from the DRC for a responsible net-zero transition. Their research identifies multiple sustainability risks and assesses existing responsible-sourcing measures. It also raises concerns about the adequacy of downstream engagement in addressing these risks (Cao et al.).
This is important because ethical sourcing is not the same as structural transformation. A company may improve its monitoring procedures without changing the wider distribution of industrial capabilities or ensuring that mining communities receive a fair share of economic benefits.
Similarly, corporate commitments do not automatically guarantee effective enforcement. Their significance depends on transparency, independent monitoring, accountability, and the consequences of non-compliance.
The report by Emmanuel Nkumba-Umpula, Abbi Buxton, and Brendan Schwartz, Islands of Responsibility? Corporate Sourcing of Artisanal Cobalt in the Democratic Republic of Congo, offers a further perspective on corporate engagement with artisanal mining. Its focus on responsible sourcing and local governance helps situate corporate initiatives within the circumstances of the communities affected by mining.
These sources encourage a distinction between managing risks for businesses and transforming the conditions that create those risks. Traceability may help identify where minerals originate, but it cannot alone guarantee safe employment, adequate wages, environmental protection, or domestic industrial development.
A more comprehensive approach would combine responsible sourcing with stronger public institutions, effective labour protections, environmental regulation, and meaningful participation by mining communities. Companies should be assessed not only by their commitments but also by the measurable outcomes of their practices.
8. Economic Sovereignty and Local Value Addition
One of the most important questions facing the DRC is whether it can expand its role beyond mineral extraction. Local value addition refers to the development of activities such as processing, refining, manufacturing, technical services, and related industrial production within the country.
Gulley's research identifies limited electricity as a constraint on domestic cobalt refining. This illustrates how industrial development depends on infrastructure rather than mineral resources alone. Reliable electricity, transport networks, skilled workers, technological capacity, finance, and predictable regulation are necessary for processing and manufacturing industries to operate effectively.
Raphael Deberdt's study, “Will Congo Move Up the Battery Supply Chain? Strategic Capitalism, Friendshoring, and Localized Manufacturing in the Time of the Green Transition,” examines the DRC's ambitions to develop a stronger position in the battery supply chain. It highlights both the possibilities for localisation and the barriers associated with industrial development.
Melanie Müller's research on the new geopolitics of mineral supply chains similarly suggests that changing international relationships can create opportunities for African countries to increase local value creation and bargaining power. These opportunities, however, are not guaranteed outcomes.
Local processing could generate skilled employment, expand technical expertise, create supplier networks, and increase the proportion of mineral-related economic activity undertaken domestically. It could also improve the country's ability to negotiate with international investors.
Nevertheless, industrialisation should not be presented as a simple solution. Processing facilities require substantial investment and energy, while battery manufacturing involves complex technologies, established suppliers, and competitive international markets. Domestic production must also meet environmental and labour standards.
Moreover, value addition alone does not guarantee social justice. A refining industry could generate revenue while leaving artisanal miners, nearby communities, or workers excluded from its benefits. Economic development must therefore be assessed in terms of both productive capacity and the distribution of its outcomes.
Fanon's critique becomes particularly useful here. National development requires more than replacing foreign ownership with domestic ownership or increasing exports. It requires institutions and productive arrangements that connect economic activity with the needs of the wider population.
The DRC's objective should consequently be understood as building the capacity to negotiate, process, manufacture, regulate, and distribute benefits more effectively. Greater control over the value chain must be accompanied by public accountability and social investment if it is to produce meaningful economic sovereignty.
9. Recent Developments, 2025–2026: Resource Control and Market Power
Developments in cobalt policy during 2025 and 2026 demonstrate that the DRC's position in the global supply chain is not fixed. In 2025, the country introduced temporary restrictions on cobalt exports amid a period of market oversupply and falling prices. It subsequently moved towards an export-quota system.
The International Energy Agency's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 identifies the DRC's export quotas as a factor affecting projected cobalt supply. Its analysis notes that the policy has contributed to a tighter market outlook and demonstrates how decisions by major producing countries can influence global mineral availability.
This development is significant because it shows that the DRC is not merely a passive supplier responding to international demand. As a major producer, it can use export policy to influence market conditions and attempt to protect the value of its resources.
However, export restrictions should not automatically be interpreted as economic independence. Their success depends on policy design, implementation, market conditions, and the ability to convert temporary bargaining power into lasting domestic development.
Higher prices may increase export earnings, but they do not necessarily guarantee better wages, improved public services, or new manufacturing capacity. The distribution of additional revenue remains an important question.
Furthermore, export controls can create uncertainty for companies and consumers that depend on reliable mineral supplies. Such measures may encourage investment in alternative sources, changes in battery chemistry, recycling, or other supply-chain adjustments. These responses could alter the DRC's future bargaining position.
The development therefore presents both an opportunity and a risk. It demonstrates the country's potential influence over a strategic resource, while highlighting the need for a long-term industrial and social-development strategy. Fanon's framework helps distinguish the assertion of national control from the broader transformation of economic relationships.
10. Counterarguments and the Limits of the Colonial Analogy
A balanced analysis must recognise that the global green transition can create genuine opportunities for the DRC. International demand may attract investment, increase employment, generate public revenue, and support infrastructure development. Responsible-sourcing programmes may also encourage improved monitoring and safer working conditions.
In addition, contemporary mineral relationships differ from formal colonialism. The DRC possesses an internationally recognised sovereign government, participates in global markets, and can adopt policies affecting mineral production and exports. Foreign companies, domestic institutions, workers, and local communities also have different interests and degrees of influence.
It would therefore be misleading to describe every foreign investment as colonial exploitation or to assume that all economic relationships reproduce the same historical structures.
Nevertheless, political sovereignty does not remove inequalities in access to finance, technology, industrial capacity, or global markets. A country can exercise formal authority over its resources while remaining constrained in how it participates in the most profitable stages of production.
The strongest use of Fanon is consequently analytical rather than literal. His theory helps investigate whether political independence is accompanied by changes in productive structures and the distribution of economic power. It also encourages attention to domestic elites and institutions rather than attributing every problem exclusively to foreign actors.
The evidence supports neither the conclusion that the green transition is automatically emancipatory nor the claim that it can only reproduce colonial relationships. Its effects depend on how mineral wealth is governed, how investment is organised, how communities are protected, and whether resource-producing countries develop greater productive capacity.
11. Conclusion
This assignment has examined the DRC's cobalt supply chain through Fanon's critique of the postcolonial national bourgeoisie in The Wretched of the Earth. It has argued that the global green transition presents a contradiction: technologies intended to support environmental sustainability depend on mineral extraction that can produce unequal economic benefits and significant social and environmental burdens.
The DRC's central position in cobalt production gives it strategic importance, but mineral abundance does not automatically guarantee control over refining, manufacturing, technology, or the distribution of economic benefits. Research on artisanal mining and environmental exposure also demonstrates the importance of considering the experiences of workers and communities rather than evaluating the supply chain exclusively through production and trade figures.
Fanon's framework helps explain why formal sovereignty must be distinguished from substantive economic independence. His critique directs attention to the relationship between international economic pressures, domestic political arrangements, and the capacity to transform resource wealth into broad-based development. However, the contemporary DRC should not be treated as an exact repetition of colonial history. Its circumstances require analysis of both historical continuities and present-day differences.
Recent export restrictions demonstrate that the DRC can exercise influence over the cobalt market. Yet market power alone cannot guarantee industrial development or social justice. Achieving greater economic sovereignty requires investment in infrastructure, domestic processing, technical expertise, accountable institutions, environmental protection, and fair working conditions.
The hypothesis is therefore supported with an important qualification: the green transition can reproduce extractive inequalities when the distribution of productive capacity and economic benefits remains unequal, but this outcome is neither inevitable nor identical to formal colonialism. The DRC's challenge is not simply to extract more cobalt or obtain higher prices. It is to use its mineral resources to build a more diversified economy in which workers and local communities share more meaningfully in the benefits of development.
Ultimately, the sustainability of the green transition must be evaluated not only by the emissions avoided through electric vehicles and renewable energy but also by the economic and social relationships through which their materials are produced. A transition can be technologically low-carbon while remaining economically unequal. Fanon's continuing relevance lies in his insistence that genuine liberation requires the transformation of the structures that determine who controls wealth, who bears the costs, and whose lives benefit from national development.
Works Cited
Banza Lubaba Nkulu, Célestin, et al. “Sustainability of Artisanal Mining of Cobalt in DR Congo.” Nature Sustainability, vol. 1, no. 9, 2018, pp. 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0139-4.
Cao, Xintong, Maria Sharmina, and Rosa M. Cuéllar-Franca. “Sourcing Cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo for a Responsible Net-Zero Transition: Incentives, Risks and Stakeholders.” Resources Policy, vol. 95, 2024, article 105149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2024.105149.
Deberdt, Raphael. “Will Congo Move Up the Battery Supply Chain? Strategic Capitalism, Friendshoring, and Localized Manufacturing in the Time of the Green Transition.” The Extractive Industries and Society, vol. 19, 2024, article 101495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2024.101495.
Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
Gulley, Andrew L. “China, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Artisanal Cobalt Mining from 2000 through 2020.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 120, no. 26, 2023, article e2212037120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212037120.
Gulley, Andrew L. “One Hundred Years of Cobalt Production in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.” Resources Policy, vol. 79, 2022, article 103007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.103007.
International Energy Agency. Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026. IEA, 2026, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2026.
International Energy Agency. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. IEA, 2021, https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions.
Müller, Melanie. “The ‘New Geopolitics’ of Mineral Supply Chains: A Window of Opportunity for African Countries.” South African Journal of International Affairs, vol. 30, no. 2, 2023, pp. 177–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2023.2226108.
Nkumba-Umpula, Emmanuel, Abbi Buxton, and Brendan Schwartz. Islands of Responsibility? Corporate Sourcing of Artisanal Cobalt in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Institute for Environment and Development, 2021, https://www.iied.org/20436iied.
Radley, Ben. “Green Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Quest for National Development in the Congo.” Review of African Political Economy, vol. 50, nos. 177–178, 2023, pp. 322–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/03056244.2023.2277616.
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